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Link to
Indonesia-Pusaka
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History
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Birth of the Replublic of Indonesia
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The Japanese Occupation
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Return of Dutch Rule
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Temporary Britis Rule
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Dutch Colonialism
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The Poruguese era
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The Period of Islamic Kingdoms
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The Period of Hindu Kingdoms
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The Ancient Times
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THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
The Republic of Indonesia first saw light on August 17, 1945, when its independence
was proclaimed just days after the Japanese surrender to the Allies. Pancasila became the ideological and philosophical
basis of the Republic, and on August 18, 1945 the Constitution was adopted as the basic law of the country.
Following the provisions of the Constitution, the country is headed by a President who is also the Chief Executive.
He is assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of ministers.
The sovereignty of the people rests with the People’s Consultative Assembly (MPR). Hence, the President is accountable
to the MPR. The legislative power is vested in the House of Representafives (DPR).
Other institutions of the state are the Supreme Court, the Supreme Advisory Council and the Supreme Audit Board.
Soekarno became the first President and Chief Executive, and Mohammad Hatta, the first Vice-President of the Republic.
On September 5, 1945 the first cabinet was formed.
The War of Independence
The infant republic was soon faced with military threats to its very existence. British troops landed in Indonesia
as a contingent of the Allied Forces to disarm the Japanese. Dutch troops also seized this opportunity to land
in the country, but for a different purpose, - namely, to regain control of the former East Indies. At the beginning
they were assisted by British troops under General Christison, a fact later admitted by Lord Louis Mountbatten,
the Commander of the Allied Forces in Southeast Asia based in Myanmar. In fact, the British troops were officially
only assigned to the task of repatriating Allied prisoners of war and internees.
On November 10, 1945, fierce fighting broke out between British troops and Indonesian freedom fighters in which
the British lost Brigadier Mallaby. As a result, the British turned to all-out combat from the sea, air and land.
The newly-recruited army of the Republic soon realized the superiority of the British forces and withdrew from
urban battles. They subsequently formed guerrilla units and fought together with armed groups of the people.
Under the pretext of representing the Allied Forces, the Dutch sent in more troops to attack Indonesian strongholds.
Between 1945 and 1949 they undertook two military actions.
Diplomacy and Fighting
Meanwhile, on November 11, 1945, Vice-President Hatta issued a manifesto that outlined the basic policy of the
new Republic. It was a policy of good neighborhood and peace 22 with the rest of the world.
On November 14 of the same year, the newly-appointed Prime Minister, Sutan Syahrir, introduced a parliamentary
system, with party representation, in the Republic.
On December 22, Sutan Syahrir announced Indonesia’s acceptance of the British proposal to disarm and confine to
internment camps 25,000 Japanese troops throughout the country. This task was successfully carried out by TNI,
the Indonesian National Army. Repatriation of the Japanese troops began on April 28, 1946.
Because fighting with Dutch troops continued, the seat of the Republican Government was moved from Jakarta to Yogyakarta
on January 4, 1946.
The Indonesian Question in the United Nations
The war in Indonesia posed a threat to international peace and security. In the spirit of article 24 of the United
Nations’ Charter, the question of Indonesia was officially brought before the Security Council by Jacob Malik of
the Soviet Unions. Soon afterwards, on February 10, 1946, the first official meeting of Indonesian and Dutch representatives
took place under the chairmanship of Sir Archibald Clark Kerr.
But the freedom fight continued and Dutch military aggressions met with stiff resistance from Indonesian troops.
The Indonesian Government conducted a diplomatic offensive against the Dutch.
With the good offices of Lord Killearn of Great Britain, Indonesian and Dutch representatives met at Linggarjati
in West Java. The negotiations resulted in the de facto recognition by the Dutch of lndonesia’s sovereignty over
Java, Sumatra and Madura. The Linggarjati Agreement was initiated on November 1946 and signed on March 25, 1947.
But the agreement was a violation of Indonesia’s independence proclamation of August 17, 19A5, which implied sovereignty
over the whole territory of the Republic. As such, it met with the widespread disapproval of the people. Hence,
guerrilla fighting continued, bringing heavy pressure on Dutch troops.
In July 1947 the Dutch launched a military offensive to reinforce their urban bases and to intensify their attacks
on guerrilla strongholds. The offensive was, however, put to end by the signing of the Renville Agreement on January
17, 1948. The negotiation was initiated by India and Australia and took place under the auspices of the UN Security
Council.
It was during these critical moments that the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) stabbed the newly- proclaimed Republic
of Indonesia in the back by declaring the formation of the "Indonesian People’s Republic" in Madiun,
East Java. Muso led an attempt to overthrow the Government, but this was quickly stamped out and he was killed.
In violation of the Renville agreement, on December 19, 1948, the Dutch launched their second military aggression.
They invaded the Republic capital of Yogyakarta, arrested President Soekarno, Vice-President Mohammad Hatta and
other leaders, and detained them on the island of Bangka, off the east coast of Sumatra. A caretaker Government,
with headquarters in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, was set up under Syafruddin Prawiranegara.
On the initiative of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru of India, a meeting of 19 nations was convened in New Delhi that produced
a resolution for submission to the United Nations, pressing for total Dutch surrender of sovereignty to the Republic
of Indonesia by January 1, 1950. It also pressed for the release of all Indonesian detainees and the return of
territories seized during the military actions. On January 28, 1949, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution
to establish a cease-fire, the release of Republican leaders and their Yogyakarta.
The Dutch, however, were adamant and continued to occupy the city of Yogyakarta in ignorance of the Republican
Government and the National Army. They deliberately issued a false statement to the world that the Government and
the army of the Republic of Indonesia no longer existed.
To prove that the Dutch claim was a mere fabrication, Lieutenant Colonel Soeharto, now President of the Republic,
led an all-out attack on the Dutch troops in Yogyakarta on March 1, 1949, and occupied the city for several hours.
This offensive is recorded in lndonesia’s history as "the first of March all-out attack" to show to the
world at the time that the Republic and its military were not dead.
Consequently, on May 7, 1949, an agreement was signed by Mohammad Roem of Indonesia and Van Rooyen of the Netherlands,
to end hostilities, restore the Republican Government in Yogyakarta, and to hold further negotiations at a round
table conference under the auspices of the United Nations.
World Recognition and Indonesia’s Sovereignty
The Round Table conference was opened in the Hague on August 23, 1949, under the auspices of the UN. It was concluded
on November 2 with an agreement that Holland was to recognize the sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia.
On December 27, 1949 the Dutch East Indies ceased to exist. It now became the sovereign Federal Republic of Indonesia
with a federal constitution. The constitution, inter alia, provided for a parliamentary system in which the cabinet
was responsible to Parliament. The question of sovereignty over Irian Jaya, formerly West New Guinea, was suspended
for further negotiations between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This issue remained a perpetual source of conflict
between the two countries for more than 13 years. On September 28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the United
Nations.
The Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia
On August 17, 1950 the Unitary State of the Republic on Indonesia, as originally proclaimed, was restored. However,
the liberal democratic system of government was retained whereby the cabinet would be accountable to the House
of Representatives. This was a source of political instability with frequent changes in government. In the absence
of a stable government, it was utterly impossible for a newly-independent state to embark on any development program.
With the return of the unitary state, the President once again assumed the duties of Chief Executive and the Mandatary
of the Provisional People’s Consultative Assembly. He is assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of his own
choosing. The Executive is not responsible to the House of Representatives.
Challenges to " Unitary State"
The philosophy behind the Unitary State was that a pluralistic country like Indonesia could only be independent
and strong if it was firmly united and integrated. This was obviously the answer to the Dutch colonial practice
of divide and rule. Hence, the national motto was "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" as referred to earlier.
However, no sooner was the Unitary State re-established then it had to face numerous armed rebellions. The Darul
Islam rebels under Kartosuwiryo terrorized the countryside of West Java in their move to establish an Islamic State.
It took years to stamp them out. Then there was the terrorist APRA band of former Dutch army captain Turco Westerling,
which claimed the lives of thousands of innocent people.
Outside Java, demobilized ex-colonial arm men who remained loyal to the Dutch crown, staged a revolt and proclaimed
what they called "the Republic of South Maluku".
In South Sulawesi an ex-colonial army officer, Andi Aziz, also rebelled. In Kalimantan lbnu Hadjar lead another
armed revolt. Sumatra could also account for a number of separafist movements. And, to complete the list, the Indonesian
Communist Party again staged an abortive coup under the name of 30th September movement, when they kidnaped and
killed six of the country’s top army generals in the early hours of October 1, 1965.
The Asian-African Conference
President Soekamo had to his credit the holding of the Asian-African Conference in Bandung, West Java, from April
1 8 to 24, 1955. The initiative was taken by Indonesia, India, Pakistan, Myanmar and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The conference
was attended by delegates from 24 Asian and African countries. The purpose of the meeting was to promote closer
and amiable cooperation in the economic, cultural and political fields. The resolution adopted became known as
the "Dasa Sila", or "The Ten Principles," of Bandung. It strives for world peace, respect for
one another’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, and for non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
The resolution also seeks to uphold the human rights principles of the United Nations.
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THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION
After their attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, the Japanese forces moved southwards to conquer several Southeast
Asian countries. After Singapore had fallen, they invaded the Dutch East Indies and the colonial army surrendered
in March 1942.
Soekarno and Hatta were released from their detention. The Japanese began their propaganda campaign for what they
called "Great East Asia Coprosperity". But Indonesians soon realized that it was a camouflage for Japanese
imperialism in place of Dutch colonialism.
To further the cause of Indonesia’s independence, Soekarno and Hatta appeared to cooperate with the Japanese authorities.
In reality, however, Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground and masterminded insurrections in Blitar (East
Java), Tasikmalaya and Indramayu (West Java), and in Sumatra and Kalimantan.
Under the pressure of the 4th Pacific war, where their supply lines were interrupted, and the increasing of Indonesian
insurrections, the Japanese ultimately gave into allow the red-and-white flag to fly as the Indonesian national
flag. Recognition of "Indonesia Raya" as the national anthem and Bahasa Indonesia as the national language
followed. Hence, the youth’s pledge of 1928 was fulfilled.
After persistent demands, the Japanese finally agreed to place the civil administration of the county into Indonesian
hands. This was a golden opportunity for nationalist leaders to prepare for the proclamation of lndonesia’s independence.
Printable Version |
NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS
When all these regional wars of independence failed, Indonesian nationalists began thinking of a more-organized
struggle against Dutch colonialism.
The move began with the founding-of Boedi Oetomo, literally meaning "noble conduct," on May 20, 1908.
This organization of Indonesian intellectuals was initially set up for educational purposes but later turned to
politics. It was inspired by Japan’s victory over Russia in 1901, which also gave impetus to nationalist movements
in many parts of Indonesia. The founder of Boedi Oetomo was Dr. Soetomo who was, at the time, a student of STOVIA,
an institution of train Indonesian medical officers. Dr. Soetomo was greafly influenced by Dr. Wahidin Soedirohoesodo
and supported by Gunawan and Suradji.
In 1912 Sarekat Dagang Islam, the Association of Moslem Merchants, was formed by Haji Samanhudi and others. Its
objective was at first to stimulate and promote the interest of Indonesian business in the Dutch East Indies. However,
in 1912 this organization of middle class businessmen turned into a political party and was renamed Sarekat Islam
under the leadership of H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto, Haji Agoes Salim and others.
In 1912 a progressive Moslem organization, Muhammadiyah, was established by K.H. Akhmad Dahlan in Yogyakarta for
the purpose of social and economic reforms.
In December of the some year Partai Indonesia was founded by Douwes Dekker, later named Setiabudi, with Dr. Tjipto
Mangunkusumo and Ki Hajar Dewantoro. The objective of the party was to strive for complete independence of Indonesia.
All three leaders of the party were exiled by the colonial government in 1913.
In 1914 communism was introduced in the East Indies by three Dutch nationals-Sneevliet, Baars and Brandsteder.
In May 1920 Sarikat Islam split into a right and a left wing, the later was to become the Partai Komunis Indonesia
(PKI, the Indonesian Communist Party) under the leadership of Semaun, Darsono, Alimin, Muso and others.
The Powerless People’s Council or Volksraad
In 1916 Sarikat Islam held its first convention in Bandung and resolved the demand self-government for Indonesia
in cooperation with the Dutch. When Sarikat Islam demanded a share in the legislative power in the colony, the
Dutch responded by setting up the Volksraad in 1918 which was virtually a powerless people’s council with an advisory
status.
Indonesian representatives on the council were indirectly elected through regional councils, but some of the other
members were appointed colonial officials.
The Volksraad later developed into a semi-legislative assembly. Among the members of this body were prominent nationalist
leaders like Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo, H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto, Abdul Muis, Dr. G.S.S.J. Ratulangi, M.H. Thamrin, Wiwoho,
Sutardjo Kartohadikusumo, Dr. Radjiman, and Soekardjo Wiryopronoto.
Under the pressure of the social unrest in the Netherlands at the end of World War 1, the Dutch promised to grant
self-government to Indonesians. This was known as the "November promise." It was a promise that never
met.
Besides the Volksraad, there was another body called Raad van Indie, "the Council of the Indies," whose
the members were appointed by the Government Achmad Djajadiningrat and Sujono were among the very few Indonesian
members of this council.
Restrictions of Civil Liberties
In 1923 deteriorating economic conditions and increasing labor strikes prompted the colonial government to put
severe restrictions on Indonesian civil liberties and make amendments to the colonial laws and penal codes. Freedom
of assembly, speech and expression in writing was restricted.
Further Growth of Indonesian Organizations
Despite the political restrictions, on July 3, 1922 Ki Hajar Dewantoro founded Taman Siswa, an organization to
promote national education.
In 1924 the Indonesian Students Association, "Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia," was formed by Drs. Mohammad
Hatta, Dr. Sukiman and others. This organization became a driving force of the nationalist movement to gain independence.
The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) staged revolts against the colonial government in November 1926 in West Java,
and in January 1927 in West Sumatra. After their suppression the Government exiled many non-communist nationalist
leaders to Tanah Merah, which the Dutch called "Boven Digul" in Irian Jaya. Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo was
exiled to Bandaneira.
In February 1927 Mohammad Hatta, Achmad Soebardjo and other members of lndonesia’s Movements attended the first
international convention of the "League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression" in Brussels, together
with Jawaharlal Nehru and many other prominent nationalist leaders from Asia and Africa.
In July 1927, Soekarno, Sartono and others formed the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), which adopted Bahasa
Indonesia as the official language. This party adopted a militant policy of noncooperation with the Government
as the result of a fundamental conflict of interest between Indonesian nationalism and Dutch colonialism.
In the same year, and all-Indonesia nationalist movement was organized by Indonesian youth and women to replace
earlier organizations, which had been based regionalism, such as "Young Java," "Young Sumatra"
and "Young Ambon."
On October 28, 1928, delegates to the second Indonesian Youth Congress in Jakarta pledge allegiance to "one
country, one nation and one language, Indonesia."
Meanwhile, the Technical Faculty was set up in Bandung in1920, and the Law Faculty was opened in Jakarta in 1924
to replace the former Law School. The Medical Faculty was opened in Jakarta in 1927 to replace the old Medical
School. Except for the Technical Faculty in Bandung, all the faculties in Jakarta were merged in the University
of Indonesia in 1964 in independent Indonesia.
Concerned about the growing national awareness of freedom, the colonial authorities arrested the PNI leader, Soekarno,
in December 1929. This touched off widespread protests by Indonesians.
In 1930 the world was in the grip of an economic and monetary crisis. The severe impact of the crisis was felt
in the Indies, a raw material producing country. The colonial government responded with a strict balance budget
policy that aggravated economic and social conditions.
Two other leaders of the PNI, Gatot Mangkupradja and Maskun Supriadinata, were arrested and tried in court on charges
of plotting against the Government. Soekarno was released in September 1931 but exiled again in August 1933. He
remained in Dutch custody until the Japanese invasion in 1942.
In January 1931, Dr. Soetomo founded Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia, the Indonesian Unity Party. Its objective was
to improve the social status of the Indonesian people.
In April of the same year, PNI was abandoned. A new party was formed by Sartono, LLM and named Partai Indonesia,
the Indonesian Party. Its basis was nationansm, its line was independence.
Also in 1931, Sutan Syahrir formed Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia. Known as the new PNI, it envisaged national education.
Mohammad Hatta joined this organization.
In 1933 a mutiny broke out on the Dutch warship "De Zeven Provincien" for which Indonesian nationalists
were held responsible. The following year Sutan Syahrir and Mohammad Hatta and other nationalist leaders were arrested
and banished until1942.
In 1935, Soetomo merged Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia and Boedi Oetomo to form Partai Indonesia Raya (Parindra). Its
fundamental goal was the independence of Great Indonesia.
The Indonesian Petition
In July 1936, Sutardio submitted to the "Volksraad" a petition calling for greater autonomy for Indonesia.
This petition was flatly rejected by the Dutch-dominated Council.
In 1937 Dr. A.K. Gani started the Indonesian People’s Movement, Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia, which was based on the
principles of nationalism, social independence and self-reliance.
In 1939 the All Indonesian Political Federation, GAPI, called for the establishment of a full-fledged Indonesian
parliament. This demand was rejected by the Government in Holland in 1940.
GAPI also demanded an Indonesian military service for the purpose of defending the country in times of war. Again,
this was turned down, notwithstanding the impending outbreak of World War II. At the time, there were widespread
movements for fundamental and progressive reforms in the colonies and dependencies in Asia |
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| Source: www.deplu.go.id Update 11/23/2002 |
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